A.
Definition
B.
Classification of glaciers
1. Mountain or alpine glaciers
·
formed
in and restricted to the mountainous areas on Earth and comprise a small amount
of the total glacial ice on Earth
2. Continental glaciers or ice sheets
·
massive
amounts of ice covering continents and comprise about 95% of all glacial ice on
Earth
C.
Theories and concepts of glacial ice growth and demise
1. Continental glaciers
·
a.
Activity on sun-- some think a long term change in solar flare intensity or
sunspots can affect temperature on the global scale causing increases or
decreases of glacial ice on Earth—not
well accepted as an explanation for all glaciation
·
b.
Greenhouse effect---some believe increase (decrease) concentrations of certain
gases in our atmosphere such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane can increase (decrease) global
temperature causing glacial ice to decrease (increase)---there are both
synthetic and natural emissions of both these into the atmosphere- this
is still controversial
o
some
important factors influencing the increase of CO2 concentration in
the atmosphere are: a. burning of fossil fuels; b. volcanic activity (CO2)
is second most abundant volatile and most abundant gas emitted by volcanic
activity)
o
some
important factors influencing the decrease of CO2 concentration in
the atmosphere are: a. chemical weathering of rocks--leaching of rocks requires
acids as H2CO3 which forms from moisture and CO2
in atmosphere; b. plant use of CO2 for photosynthesis
·
c.
Donn-Ewing concept— some
think this is not a good explanation for all glaciation
o
a
land bridge across the Bering Straits controls the amount of precipitation in
the region by allowing different temperature bodies of waters (Arctic Ocean and
North Pacific Ocean) to mix when the land bridge is submerged and not to mix
when the land bridge is exposed--precipitation increases when bodies of water
with different temperatures mix resulting in glacial growth, while the amount
of precipitation decreases and glaciers die when the water bodies do not
mix--the Donn-Ewing concept explains the North
American Ice Age and the remnant glacier present in Greenland
o
click here to see the extent of glaciers during the Ice Age
·
d.
Atmospheric particulates – some think
by itself is a weak explanation for glaciation
o
volcanic
activity can emit large concentrations of dust particles which reflect sun
energy and if on a large scale can result in cooler global temperatures
·
e.
Plate tectonics
o
the location of Pangaea could have been at the South Pole area
causing long term glaciation in certain parts of the world.
o
click
here to see protocontinent--Pangaea Glaciation or
see page 282 in text
·
f.
Variation in the orbit of Earth--- this
appears to be the most popular to explain large glaciations-see
page 283 in text for these
o
a spherical versus elliptical orbit around the sun (eccentricity) could cause a variation in
the temperature on earth---also, a change in the angle of tilt of the Earth's
rotation axis with respect to the orbit (obliquity) and the wobbling if the
Earth (precession) could also cause a change
in temperature.
o
Click
here to see changes in Earth's orbital variations
o
However,
each of the three variations of Earth's orbit by themselves, do not explain
glaciation. However, if all three are considered, this can explain short
termed glaciation. Milankovitch combined these
three explaining short termed glaciation on Earth.
o
Click
here to see the Milankovitch Cycles.
click
here to read how often Ice Ages occur
2. Alpine glaciers
·
growth and demise of alpine glacial ice is more dependent on small
term changes as in seasonal temperature and precipitation differences as is
present in many global mountainous regions. There can be alpine glaciers active and
caused by continental glaciations
·
D.
Glacial regiment
1. Ice accumulation and wastage
·
a
glacier grows as long as the rate of ice formation in the zone of accumulation
is greater than the rate of ice melting (ablation) in the zone of wastage--this
is true for both continental and alpine glaciers
·
click here to see glacial growth or see
pages 266 and 285 in text
·
click here to see a photo of zone of accumulation (above
snowline) and zone of wastage (below snowline) or see
page 267 in text
2. Glacial flow
·
glacial
ice does not move at the same rate at different levels within the ice--glacial
ice is more plastic near its center and brittle at the top--the rate of
movement is greatest at the center and top of the glacier and slowest at the
bottom where there is friction of ice with rock
·
the
upper portion of the glacier (brittle zone) has many cracks called
crevasses---glaciologists can repel downward in these cracks and study various
characteristics of the glacier--see photo on page 278(299)
·
click here to see glacial ice movement or see
page 266 in text
II. Glacial deposits and erosional features
A.
Alpine glaciers
·
essentially
all alpine glacial deposits consists of till materials called moraines--after the
discussion on deposits and erosional features you can see
page 275 and these glacial features
o a. lateral moraine--formed on
the sides of the glacial ice where bedrock is plucked and pulverized
o
b.
medial moraine--formed when glacial lobes and lateral moraines merge
o
click here to see a photo of lateral and medial moraines
o
c.
end or terminal moraine--a ridge of deposits contouring the shape of the front
of the glacier formed by the "bulldozing" action of the glacier as it
grows or advances, and/or in part from accumulation of material which moved
along the bottom of the glacier and discharged at the front of the
glacier--this deposit represents the point of maximum advance of the glacier
o
d.
recessional moraine--a deposit shaped similar to the end moraine formed when
there are periodic advances by the glacier during the overall retreat or demise
of the glacier---there can be many recessional moraines formed during the
overall retreat
2. Erosional features
·
formed
from the plucking nature of the glacier
o a. cirque--is a semi-circular
or amphitheater shaped feature--a tarn or cirque lake can form in the cirque
and a series of interconnected tarns can form paternoster lakes
o
click here to see a photo of cirques and tarns or see
page 271 in text
o
b.
horn--is a peaked or pointed feature resulting from the formation of a series
of closely related cirques--best example of this is the Matter Horn in the Alps
o
click here to see a photo of the Matterhorn in the Alps or see page
273 in text
o
c.
arete--is a jagged saw-tooth ridge formed between 2
adjacent glacial lobes moving to lower elevations
o
click here to see a photo of aretes
or see page 271 in text
o
d.
U-shaped valley--is the shape of the valley carved by a glacier and best seen
in the front profile view
o
click here to see a photo of a U-shaped glacial valley see page 272
in text
o
e.
hanging valley--is a glacial valley formed from a tributary glacial lobe and
appears overhanging the main glacial valley--best example of this is Bridalveil Falls in Yosemite National Park
o
click here to see a photo of a hanging valley or see
page 271 in text
click here to see alpine glacial
deposits and erosional features or see
page 271 in text
B.
Continental glaciers
1. Erosional features
·
there
are various erosional features associated with continental glaciers like the
Great Lake Basins and the Driftless area in
Wisconsin, but the depositional features are much more significant
·
a.
Till
o
ground
moraine--an undulating massive blanket like deposit formed where the ice mass
was present
o
end or terminal moraine--see the same under topic "alpine
deposits" above (II. A. 1. c.)
o
recessional moraine-see the same under the topic "alpine deposits
above (II. A. 1. d.)
o
drumlin--a
streamlined symmetric inverted spoon head shaped hill whose steep side faces
the direction from which the glacier advanced--an important drumlin is Bunker
Hill, Boston where the famous Revolutionary War battle was fought
o
click here to see a photo of a field of drumlins –see
page 277 in text for another picture of drumlins
·
b.
Outwash
o
outwash
plain--a relatively flat massive blanket like deposit consisting of layered
materials deposited by melt water in front and on the sides of the margin of
the ice sheet
o
esker--a
winding ridge comprised primarily of sand and gravel layers deposited by a
stream flowing in a tunnel beneath a glacier near its terminus
o
click here to see an aerial photo and location drawing of an
esker or see page 277 in text
o
kame--a
steep sided hill comprised of sand and gravel layers originating when sediment
collects in openings in stagnant glacial ice
·
kettle
hole and kettle lake--formed when a large block of ice becomes lodged in the
ground moraine or outwash plain and melts causing the land to collapse
click here to see continental glacial
deposits –see page 277 for another
picture of continental glacial deposits
click
here to read more about topics on glaciers treated above
page 297
click to return
page 281
click to return
page 275
click to return
page 277
click to return
till deposit
click to return
lateral and medial moraines
click to return
page 286
click to return
aretes
click to return
ushaped valley
click to return
hanging valley
click to return
page 283
click to return
page 275
click to return
page 279
click to return
drumlin field
click to return
page 295
click to return
page 296
click to return